Sea stacks

This photo is one that I took a few years ago – you can just make out my shadow on the cliff face! 

It shows a well-known example of sea stacks caused by the erosion of chalk cliffs by the sea over a period of many thousands of years. The foreground stacks are The Needles at the western tip of the Isle of Wight, which is about half-way along the south coast of England.

In the very far distance you can just make out another line of white cliffs. These culminate in another set of sea stacks, known as the Old Harry Rocks, which are on the coast of Dorset. There was once a continuous line of cliffs that connected The Needles to Old Harry, but the sea has long since destroyed them and then gouged out a huge bay from the softer deposits that were previously protected by the harder chalk.

Sea stacks form when the sea erodes the chalk on both sides of a headland to form caves. When the caves meet back-to-back, arches will form through which the sea can pass unhindered, making the gap ever wider. In time the roof of each arch will collapse, and the pillars of rock between the arches will be left isolated as stacks. Eventually even these will go.

One can appreciate that this process must have happened many times over to create the gap between the Isle of Wight and Dorset, and there is nothing to suggest that it will not go on doing so into the far distant future!

© John Welford

Belas Knap long barrow, Gloucestershire

Belas Knap is a Neolithic long barrow that dates from around 3,700 BC. It is on a ridge of the Cotswold Hills (Cleeve Hill) high above the small town of Winchcombe in Gloucestershire.

Belas Knap is what is known as a chambered long barrow, in that it consists of a mound of earth into which stone-lined burial chambers – now open - were inserted. There are four such chambers at Belas Knap, two on opposites sides about half way along, one at the far end from the “entrance”, and another at the side close to the last-mentioned chamber.

The supposed entrance is actually false, in that the barrow does not contain a central covered way. The mound forms wings or “horns” at one end that guard a small courtyard that was probably used for ceremonial purposes.

The barrow is about 180 feet long, 60 feet wide and 14 feet high at its highest point.

Excavations of the barrow took place in 1863-5 and 1928, which discovered many human and animal remains in the four chambers and hidden behind the stone facing of the false entrance. It is believed that at least 38 people of various ages were buried here over a 100 year period. Some of them showed evidence of having died violent deaths from head injuries.

During the 1928 excavation a considerable amount of restoration work was done to Belas Knap so that it probably looks today much as it did 5,500 years ago. The work involved re-roofing the burial chambers with concrete, but that is the only discordant feature that can be seen here today.

Belas Knap can only be reached on foot, involving a steep climb from the nearest roadside access point. However, the effort is well rewarded, not only for the visit to the ancient monument but also for the magnificent views to be had across the surrounding countryside, given that this is close to the highest point of the Cotswolds.

© John Welford

Rotten Row, Hyde Park, London

This broad sandy avenue runs for nearly a mile along the south side of London’s Hyde Park, and there is absolutely nothing rotten about it – either literally or figuratively! 

It was first laid out during the joint reign of King William III and Queen Mary II, which lasted from 1689 to Mary’s death in 1694 (after which William reigned alone for another eight years). 

The avenue was laid out as a private road to grant safe access for the royals between Kensington Palace and the central London residences of St James’s Palace and Whitehall (reached via the adjoining Green Park to the east). 

The route was lit at night by 300 oil lamps, as a precaution against highwaymen, and Rotten Row was thus the first artificially lit road in Britain. 

In later years Rotten Row became a fashionable place for exercising horses, being close to the homes of many upper-class Londoners who lived in the vicinity of Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens. It was somewhere to see and be seen and was often crowded with riders, although these days not many Londoners have houses with stables attached, so the Row is usually empty. 

However, it is still a regular exercise route for the Household Cavalry, whose barracks are close by. 

But why the name Rotten Row? It is simply a corruption of the original name “Rue du Roi”, or “King’s Road”. It is not difficult to see how Londoners with no knowledge of French might convert the name to what it has been for several centuries past! 

© John Welford

Rock of Ages in Burrington Combe, Somerset

Augustus Montague Toplady (1740-78) was an Anglican clergyman of Calvinist persuasion who is best known for two things – being a vehement opponent of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, and writing the hymn “Rock of Ages” which is sung regularly in churches and other Christian gatherings down to the present day.

The photo is of the rock that – it is widely believed - inspired him to write the hymn. It is in Burrington Combe, a steep-sided valley that offers a route from the top of the Mendip Hills down to the coastal plain on the northern side. It has been described as the “poor man’s Cheddar Gorge”, and would surely be much better known were it not that the latter is far more spectacular. 

Between 1762 and 1764 Toplady was a curate based at Blagdon in Somerset, which is not far from Burrington Combe. The story goes that he was on a walk that took him along the Combe when he was caught in a violent thunderstorm. He sought shelter in a gap in the cliff at the side of the road, which offered a measure of protection. He saw the presence of the gap at the exact time he needed it as an example of Divine providence, and it therefore became the “Rock of Ages, cleft for me” that formed the first line of his subsequent hymn.

At least, that is the legend, but not everyone accepts its historical accuracy. There is a plaque on the face of the rock that declares the story to be true, and the nearby Burrington Inn does excellent business from the many visitors who turn up with the intention of seeing the rock and inserting themselves into the cleft, but there is no real evidence that Augustus Toplady actually did what is alleged. 

© John Welford

Mound of Down, Northen Ireland

The name might give the impression that this is a pile of feathers, but it is in fact an ancient hill-fort near the town of Downpatrick in Northern Ireland. 

It is a large earthwork comprising a bank and ditch that encircle a natural drumlin, this being a smooth-sided hill – formed from glacial outflow material – that resembles half an egg in shape. The area has many drumlins in it, but the Mound rises higher than the rest – up to 12 metres above the surrounding countryside. This was once a boggy area known as the Quoile Marshes, so the Mound would have offered a perfect defensive position.

The Mound covers about three acres, which is large in terms of Iron Age sites, and there is a smaller earthwork within the main surrounding bank.

Another name for the Mound is Dundalethglas, which translates as “the English mount”. This could refer to the use of the site by Sir John de Courcy, an Anglo-Norman knight who invaded Ulster on behalf of King Henry II in the 1170s. 

However, after Sir John’s time the Mound became overgrown and disappeared from view beneath brambles, gorse and larger trees. It was therefore unknown for centuries and has only been restored to view relatively recently.

Archaeologists and historians are now thinking that the Mound of Down might have had an even more important role in the past than that accorded to it by Sir John de Courcy. It may have been a royal stronghold for the Kings of Ulster who ruled this region in the early medieval period.

© John Welford

Penrhyn Castle's temporary treasures

Wales is famous for its numerous splendid castles, many of them dating from the reign of King Edward I in the 13^th century. However, although Penrhyn Castle near Bangor in North Wales may look as if it is a remarkably well-preserved example of such a castle, it is far from it. It was built in 1827-40 by a man whose family fortune derived from slate quarrying, and it has been described as “a monstrously vulgar neo-Norman pile”.

During World War II Penrhyn Castle was given a particularly important role to play – not as part of the defence of the realm but as a storehouse for some of the most valuable paintings in London’s National Gallery. It was decided in 1940 that leaving them in London, then subject to aerial bombardment from Germany’s Luftwaffe, was too great a risk, and Penrhyn Castle looked to be a much safer place for some the world’s greatest artistic masterpieces to be stored.

It was not a case of the National Gallery moving to North Wales, because the paintings were not on display but simply stored in the castle, many of them stacked against the walls in the Great Dining Room.

This arrangement would have been fine had it not been that the then owner of the castle, the elderly 4^th Baron Penrhyn, was not the most trustworthy guardian of treasures such as “The Rokeby Venus” by Velasquez or “The Hay Wain” by John Constable. For one thing, he had a tendency to get very drunk and stumble around the paintings, thus risking the possibility that he might thrust a boot through Van Eyck’s “The Arnolfini Marriage” or some other priceless masterpiece.

He then came up with the idea of opening a girl’s boarding school at the castle, which alarmed the trustees of the National Gallery even more as they envisaged a load of unruly schoolgirls being let loose in the Great Dining Room.

Lord Penrhyn agreed to drop the plan in return for charging annual rent for the paintings of £250. 

The question of the safety of the artworks eventually reached the ears of Winston Churchill, who urged the National Gallery to find another home for them. A place that was safe both from German bombs and a highly unstable aristocrat was found in caves at Manod, near Mount Snowdon, where they saw out the rest of the War until their return to London.

When the 4^th Baron died in 1951 the castle became the property of the National Trust in lieu of death duties.

© John Welford

Whitehall Palace, London

King Henry VIII seized not only Hampton Court from Cardinal Wolsey when the latter failed to secure an annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1529, but also the Cardinal’s London residence which was then known as York Place, the Cardinal being Archbishop of York.

Henry developed the site with considerable rebuilding and the addition of a new embankment on the side facing the River Thames. The new name for the property was Whitehall Palace, and it became his principal London residence, just as it had been that of the unfortunate Cardinal. 

Henry also acquired fields to the west of the site and added a tiltyard, bowling alley, tennis court and cockpit. These were where St James’s Park is now.

The Palace was where he married both Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour, and where the latter died.

The sprawl of buildings lacked a proper Banqueting Hall, and it was not until the reign of King James I that one was added. This burnt down in 1619 and a new one was built, to the design of Inigo Jones. This one survives to the present day and it is open to the public, known now as the Banqueting House. It is notable for its splendid Palladian architecture and ceiling panels painted by Peter Paul Rubens.

It was outside the Banqueting Hall that King Charles I was executed in 1649.

Later monarchs also lived at Whitehall Palace, but William III found that the bad air from the river did not help his asthma and preferred to spend more time at Kensington Palace and Hampton Court.

A fire in 1698 destroyed nearly all the Palace, but fortunately spared the Banqueting Hall. The land on which the Palace had stood became the site of the government offices for which Whitehall is best known today.

© John Welford

Maiden Castle, Dorset

Maiden Castle is a huge hill-fort two miles southwest of Dorchester, the county town of the English county of Dorset. It was the capital of the Durotriges tribe that gave its name to Dorset and was routed by the Romans in 43 AD. However, there had been activity at the site long before then.

There was a camp at the eastern end on the hill long before 2000 BC, the proof of this being a chalk image of a mother-goddess that has been discovered there.

The first Celtic inhabitants arrived at about 300 BC, digging a single rampart, fortified with timber, that enclosed about 16 acres. They lived in timber huts and stored their supplies in large circular pits. The enclosure was enlarged to the present size of 47 acres after 250 BC.

The invention of the slingshot, which could kill at a range of 100 yards, inspired the digging of fresh fortifications that formed a series of ditches and ramparts all round the site. Even today it is possible to walk round a rampart and look down into a 50-foot deep ditch. Attackers would be forced to drop down into the ditches and thus be vulnerable to arrow fire from above.

However, these defences were no good against the sophisticated ballistae of the Roman invaders, led by the future Emperor Vespasian, when he swept westwards. One grim discovery made at the site was a spinal vertebra of a defending Celt transfixed by a ballista bolt.

By 70 AD the site was deserted, with the survivors forming part of the new Roman town of Durnovaria, now known as Dorchester.

However, there was another period of occupation at Maiden Castle in around 380 AD when a Romano-British temple was built. Another grim discovery dates from around 635 AD, this being the remains of a sacrificial victim with a hole cut in his skull.

Today’s visitors can marvel at the intricate defences built by the Durotriges, especially around what would have been the gated entrances, and enjoy the superb views to be had from the summit of the hill and the surrounding ramparts.

© John Welford

Beddgelert, North Wales

This is Gelert's Grave in the village of Beddgelert in Snowdonia, North Wales - the name is Welsh for "grave of Gelert".

Gelert was a hound that belonged to Llewelyn, Prince of Wales in the 13th century. The story goes that Llewelyn was away from home when a wolf came to his house and attacked his baby son, but Gelert fought the wolf and saw it off, despite being injured.

When Llewelyn came home he could not see the child, but he did see Gelert, covered in blood. He drew the conclusion that Gelert had killed his son and immediately killed the dog. However, as soon as he had done so he heard the baby crying and discovered where Gelert had hidden him in safety from the wolf.

Llewelyn never forgave himself for his rash action, and he made sure that Gelert had a fitting memorial.

(The photo is not mine, but is taken from a copyright-free source)

© John Welford

The memorial to Sir Arthur Sullivan, Embankment Gardens, London

Sir Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900) was the composer half of “Gilbert and Sullivan” who wrote a series of comic operas in the late 19th century that have been performed to great acclaim ever since. Sullivan was also a composer of note in other fields, particularly choral church music. His best-known contribution in this genre was probably the hymn tune to “Onward Christian Soldiers”. 

The Gilbert and Sullivan operas were staged at the Savoy Theatre in London’s Strand, so it is appropriate that the memorial to Sir Arthur stands in the Embankment Gardens facing in the direction of the Savoy Hotel and Theatre, although his bronze bust, if granted the gift of sight, would find that his view was obscured by high buildings. 

The memorial is conventional enough in concept, in that it is a bust on a stone plinth, but there are features that make it somewhat unusual. 

At the base of the plinth, to one side, is an extra piece of bronze consisting of a mandolin, a mask of Pan, and a score of one of Gilbert and Sullivan’s works, namely The Yeoman of the Guard. 

However, what catches the eye to a far greater extent is the figure of a young woman clasping the plinth in a pose that conveys great distress. Even more remarkable is the fact that her emotional state has caused her costume to fall to her waist, leaving her upper portion naked. 

One has to ask – why? The figure of the girl was not originally modelled with the Sullivan memorial in mind, having been made in Paris in 1899 when Sir Arthur was still alive, but somebody clearly thought that it would convey the sorrow that many people felt at the loss of the great man. Whether they would be adequately represented by a half-naked young woman is a matter for conjecture. 

It might have been thought that the figure was reminiscent of one of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, namely Patience, which features “rapturous maidens” draping themselves over the object of their affection, the poet Reginald Bunthorne who was loosely modelled on Oscar Wilde. If that is so, potential opera-goers need to be reassured that – in the vast majority of performances – all such maidens stay fully dressed throughout the show! 

At all events, the afterthought of adding the maiden to the plinth has resulted in what is probably one of the more erotic memorials to be found in London!

© John Welford

Chesil Beach, Dorset

Chesil Beach is the seaward side of Chesil Bank, which stretches 29 km (18 miles) along the coast of Dorset. It has the effect of connecting the Isle of Portland to the mainland, trapping a tidal saltwater lagoon known as the Fleet. It is an example of a tombolo, the name given to a spit that reaches to an island. 

Chesil Bank probably formed offshore and was driven onshore by waves and tides. It faces southwest towards the Atlantic and the prevailing winds, so it is in no danger of returning whence it came. That was also a problem in past centuries for sailing ships that found themselves driven on to the beach, because there was no way of setting the sails to allow an escape. 

Like most storm beaches, Chesil is steeply sloped with a gradient of up to 45 degrees on the seaward side. 

Chesil Beach is studied as an example of what happens under conditions of variable wave energy. At the Portland (eastern) end wave energy is much greater than at the western end. This means that smaller pebbles are washed offshore by the strong eastern waves but onshore by the weaker western waves. This graduated effect can be traced all along the beach, such that a blindfolded expert could tell exactly where he/she was if dumped at any point on the beach, simply by feeling the size of the pebbles, which are pea-sized at one end and potato-sized at the other. 

© John Welford

Blythburgh, Suffolk

Blythburgh is a village in Suffolk, not far from the coast and within an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The village is close to marshes and heathland, and the tidal lagoon of Blythburgh Water. These make the area extremely rich as a wildlife resource. 

Blythburgh Church (Holy Trinity) is a large building that seems to be out of proportion to the size of the village. Known as the “Cathedral of the Marshes” it gives the impression that Blythburgh must once have been considerably larger than it is now. However, there is no evidence that the village was ever anything other than a small one. There was once an important medieval priory nearby that was wealthy enough to endow a large church, so that is why it is the size it is. The choir stalls have holes for inkwells, due to the chancel once having had a dual role as a school. 

The church is notable for its medieval carving, particularly the large angels that look down from the rafters and the pew ends. The rafters and angels show evidence of having been shot at. This was once thought to have been the work of Cromwellian soldiers who were trying to destroy “popish idols”, but the more likely explanation is that local boys were shootings jackdaws in the church! 

The pew end carvings, which are known as “poppyheads”, feature the Seven Deadly Sins (plus a few extras) being guarded against by the angels overhead. Slander has his tongue out, Gluttony has a prominent paunch, Hypocrisy prays with his eyes open, and Sloth is still in bed. 

In 1577 a lighting bolt brought down the church spire. This was blamed as the work of the Devil, which was confirmed when Black Shuck, the legendary devil dog of the marshes, ran through the church and killed two parishioners. 

Well – that’s what they said! What was certainly true was that the collapse made a hole in the roof and the congregation had to worship beneath umbrellas on wet days before the roof was repaired. 

This is certainly a village that is well worth a visit, both for the splendours of Holy Trinity Church and the delights of the local countryside.

© John Welford

Old Sarum, Wiltshire

Old Sarum is a prominent hilltop site about two miles north of the city of Salisbury in Wiltshire. The history of the site goes back to Iron Age times, when a giant earthwork was raised to enclose a camp some 56 acres (23 hectares) in area. It was occupied almost continuously by Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Danes and Normans.

A Norman castle and cathedral were built, as well as houses and other buildings, but there were two main problems with this arrangement that came to a head in the early 13^th century. The first was that the military and ecclesiastical authorities could never agree over who had priority over the running of the city, and the second was that this windswept hilltop might have been OK for a relatively small group of Iron Age farmers, but it did not suit the needs of a growing urban community. In particular, water supply was always a problem.

There was, however, plenty of water in the open space to the south of Old Sarum, where four rivers joined together. The clergymen therefore decided to build a new cathedral to the south, using stones from the old building. This became the Gothic edifice of Salisbury Cathedral, which was usable by 1258, but without its magnificent spire, which came later.

The population of Old Sarum gradually migrated to “New Sarum” and the old city was eventually abandoned when the castle also fell into decay. Evidence of what was once there is limited to a few fragments of the castle and the outline of the cathedral foundations.

However, the fact that Old Sarum was virtually dead by the mid-13^th century did not prevent the original borough from being given the privilege of sending two members to the English Parliament founded by Simon de Montfort in 1265. This right was maintained for more than 500 years until the Great Reform Act of 1832 did away with the “rotten boroughs”, of which Old Sarum was one of the most rotten!

© John Welford

Tips for visiting British castles

Tip 1 

Join English Heritage and The National Trust. Between them, and their sister organisations, they look after a large number of castles in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, as well as many other historical buildings and places of scenic beauty. An annual membership grants free entry to most of their properties, and other benefits. You can join when you visit your first castle, or online. However, there are also castles that are privately owned and are therefore either not open at all, or are not covered by the above memberships. Some castles, such as Windsor which is a royal residence, only allow public access to part of the site.

Tip 2

Plan your castle visiting with care. There are some parts of the country that are awash with castles, and it is quite possible to visit several in a day. However, you need to allow enough time to do each castle justice, and not exhaust yourself, so, for most visitors, one before lunch and one afterwards is quite sufficient. Your planning should also take into account the fact that some castles only open for limited seasons. Also, during the summer months there are often events at castles that should not be missed, such as battle re-enactments, or displays of medieval crafts, etc, and you should plan your visits to take in as many of these events as you can.

Tip 3

Learn some background history. The main period of castle building in England and Wales was between the 11th and 16th centuries, which were turbulent, and often lawless, times, during which kings and powerful people sought to defend their territories and demonstrate their power. Knowing the reason why a castle was built, and possibly rebuilt and/or extended many times, helps towards an understanding of why a castle looks as it does today. It is also useful to understand the basic structures of castles at various times, and to distinguish between, say, a motte-and-bailey arrangement and a fortified manor house.

Tip 4

Watch the weather. Many castles in Britain are ruins, sometimes due to enemy action but more often because of the ravages of time. You can still have a great day at a castle ruin on a rainy day, but expect to get wet unless you dress appropriately! Bare stone gets slippery underfoot when wet, so wear sensible footwear and watch your step.

Tip 5

Be prepared to exert some energy! Not surprisingly for defensive structures, castles were often built on hilltops, and so a steep uphill walk is needed before the visit even begins. However, take your time and have a good look at the castle’s exterior while you pause for breath. Imagine yourself as a potential invader! When inside the walls, you are likely to find many paths to walk along, buildings and structures to visit, and stairs to climb. Be patient, especially on busy days, as you climb hundreds of steps in a spiral staircase, and be prepared to have to squeeze past other people who are coming down. Some castle buildings are enormous, and visiting every part is good exercise!

Tip 6

Keep an eye on the kids. Although the people who own and maintain ancient castles take all reasonable precautions to prevent accidents, such as covering wells and fencing off dangerous drops, they cannot guard against every eventuality, and these buildings were put there long before health and safety laws came into force! So it is up to you to make sure that everyone has a great time but does not do anything stupid. This includes making sure that they do not climb on exposed stonework (which will get worn away if everyone does this) and drop litter around the place.

Tip 7

Enjoy the experience. You can learn a lot from a castle visit, and it is certainly worth buying the guidebook. You will probably find boards placed around the castle describing each room and section, and there may be an audio guide that you can take round with you, playing the commentary into your earpiece as you reach each point of interest. Don’t overlook the castle grounds, as these are often pleasant places to walk, especially if an effort has been made to maintain them by, for example, reproducing the planting schedule of the original kitchen gardens. Also, have a look round the local town or village, as this may well have been founded at around the same time as the castle and have many stories to tell. Take your camera with you, but take note of any restrictions placed on photography.

Tip 8

Come back soon!

© John Welford

Billingsgate Market

The buildings in this photo offer a marked contrast in architectural styles! The one on the right is the old Billingsgate fish market on the north bank of the River Thames near the Tower of London.

The site was used as a fish market from at least the 13^th century, when fish were landed at a wharf and sold to traders, although other goods were sold here as well.

From 1698 it was laid down that only fish would be sold here. The building in the photograph dates from the 1870s.

It became the custom for Billingsgate porters to wear large flat hats on which loads of fish were balanced. The name Billingsgate also became used to describe the sort of abusive and expletive-laden language that they tended to use!

The site was abandoned in 1982 when a new market was opened further down-river, which allowed the original building to be restored to its former splendour.

© John Welford

St Kilda

St Kilda is a group of islands off the west coast of Scotland that very few people ever get to visit. The islands lie 66 kilometres (41 miles) west of Benbecula, which is one of the Western Isles. The islands have not had a permanent population since 1930, when the declining number of islanders agreed that they no longer had a future on these bleak islands.

The only people to be found there now are military staff and a nature warden.

It is the wildlife of St Kilda that sets it apart from other islands and is one of the reasons why it was declared a World Heritage Site in 1986. It has a remarkably high bird density per acre of land, its high cliffs (among the highest in Europe) being home to huge numbers of endangered birds including puffins and gannets. When the island was occupied the inhabitants used the birds as a food source, climbing down the cliffs to capture them, but such activities were never likely to endanger any bird species, given the huge numbers involved.

The sea around St Kilda is also vital as a marine conservation area, harbouring as it does zones of marine biodiversity that are just as important as those on land.

Evidence of former human habitation – which began more than 2,000 years ago - can be seen from the abandoned stone cottages and walls that divide the fields that were once used for growing subsistence vegetable crops. The islands were renowned for the brown St Kilda sheep which were left behind when the islanders left and now roam free. 

© St Kilda

Watermills in Great Britain

Water has been used to power machinery for thousands of years. There were watermills in ancient Greece and it was the Romans who brought the technology to Britain. However, it was not until the Anglo-Saxon period that they were developed and used on a large scale. Domesday Book, which was the record that the Normans made of their new possessions in the 1080s, counted more than 5000 watermills in England.

Overshot and undershot watermills

The simplest arrangement for a watermill is for a wheel, fitted with paddles, to be placed in a stream such that the flow of the water turns the wheel and the wheel’s axle acts as a shaft to power machinery, such as stones for grinding corn. This sort of watermill is termed an undershot mill, and was the earliest type of watermill.

However, a more efficient arrangement (by about four times) is for the water to hit the top of the wheel and be caught in buckets, the weight of which then forces the wheel to turn. The extra efficiency comes from the fact that the water can be used for longer, because, on each turn of the wheel, several buckets will contain water and their weight will be considerably greater than that of the empty buckets on the other side. By contrast, with an undershot wheel the force comes from hits on one paddle at a time.

The larger the wheel, the more buckets can drive it. The “Lady Isabella” wheel at Laxey on the Isle of Man was built in 1854 and is the largest overshot wheel in the world, at 72 feet in diameter and 6 feet wide. It has 168 buckets around the rim, a quarter of which will contain water at any one time. When the wheel was operating for its original purpose of draining the local mines, this weight of water was sufficient to raise 250 gallons of water a minute from 1,000 feet below ground. Although the mines have long since closed, the wheel still turns as a tourist attraction.

The other main advantage of an overshot wheel is that the flow of water can be regulated more easily, as it has to be directed along a channel from a millpond or other reservoir, which is often provided by means of a weir that partially dams the stream or river. The more control that can be had over the flow of water, the more regular can be the supply of power to the machinery being driven.

Tidal mills

Another source of water power is provided by tides in coastal estuaries. The usual arrangement is that a mill pond is filled by the incoming tide that flows through a sluice gate which is closed when the tide turns. The water in the pond is released to flow over the wheel as the tide runs out. The disadvantage of such a mill is that it can only run at certain times of the day.

There are two such mills in England that have been restored to working order and now operate for visitors. Woodbridge Tide Mill in Suffolk originally had a 7-acre reservoir. A mill has stood on this site since 1170. Eling Tide Mill in Hampshire takes advantage of the double tides that flow in the Solent, thus allowing it to run for up to seven hours a day. There was a mill recorded on this site in Domesday Book but the current mill is probably around 200 years old.

Uses of watermills

As mentioned above, watermills have long been used to power pumps. However, in southern England, from the mid-16^th century up to the introduction of steam power in the late 18^th century, the iron industry used water power to drive a variety of machinery. Massive hammers were used to crush the ore, while other machines pushed air into the bellows that kept the furnaces hot. The ponds that supplied the water are still known as “hammer ponds” to this day.

Gayle Mill in North Yorkshire (see picture) is an example of a mill that has had several uses throughout its history. It was originally built in 1776 as a cotton-spinning mill but was later used for processing flax and then wool. The original waterwheel was replaced in 1878 by a set of water turbines, which at one time provided electrical power for the local community and was at other times a sawmill. However, the mill has now been restored as a woodworking workshop, with the water power driving a number of lathes and other machines.

These uses are of course on top of the use to which most watermills were originally put, namely to grind corn into flour. However, over the centuries windmills came increasingly to take over the function of flour milling in many areas, partly because of the greater certainty of wind over water. This was especially the case in the drier, eastern parts of the country where wheat was grown in greater quantities and the flatter terrain provided fewer opportunities for fast-flowing streams to drive millwheels.  

Like windmills, most watermills have fallen into disrepair over the centuries and have been demolished. However, many former watermills, to a greater extent than the more awkward-shaped windmills, have found other uses as waterside houses, restaurants and the like.

© John Welford

Places associated with Lady Jane Grey

Lady Jane Grey, the “Nine Days Queen” had a very short life, being executed on 12^th February 1554 at the age of 16. Her life was a sheltered one, in that she spent most of her childhood being educated and she did not travel much. The number of places that are associated with her, and which can be visited today, is therefore limited.

Bradgate Park, Leicestershire

It has long been assumed that Jane Grey was born here, in October 1537, but it is possible that she was born in London and was only brought to the family home of the Greys a little later. However, there is no doubt that she spent much of her life here, especially in her earlier years.

Bradgate Hall and Park had been owned by the Grey family since the 15^th century, with the building of the Hall having been begun in 1490. It is fortunate that the estate has been preserved virtually intact down to the present day, having been presented to the people of Leicestershire by a descendant of the Greys in 1928.

Visitors can therefore wander over most of the 850 acres of the park, which forms part of ancient Charnwood Forest to the north-west of Leicester. This area has many features of interest to geologists, botanists and zoologists, with unusual species of plants, birds and animals to be seen, including herds of red and fallow deer. Some of the world’s oldest fossils have been found here.

However, the house that Jane Grey grew up in is mostly a ruin, although some parts are better preserved than others. Bradgate Hall is easily seen from the main track that runs across the southern part of the Park and visitors can walk through the ruins, although deadly nightshade plants have been allowed to grow here!

Sudeley Castle, Gloucestershire

Jane Grey found life at Bradgate not much to her liking, as her parents often treated her unkindly. However, she was much happier when, in the spring of 1547, Katherine Parr, the surviving last wife of King Henry VIII, invited her to join her household. Jane had, in effect, been “bought” by Katherine’s new husband, Thomas Seymour, as a potential bargaining chip in his dynastic ambitions, but for the nine-year-old Jane this was a welcome release.

At first, Jane stayed at Seymour House in London, but in the summer of 1548 she travelled with Katherine Parr, who was heavily pregnant, to Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire, which had recently been given to Thomas Seymour by the young King Edward VI.

Jane’s stay at Sudeley was short, because Katherine died shortly after giving birth to a daughter, in September of that year, and Jane acted as chief mourner at her funeral. She returned to Bradgate Hall where she remained with only a few brief interludes in London, even after her marriage to Guildford Dudley in May 1553.

Much of the castle that Jane Grey would have known was destroyed during the 17^th century after the Civil War, the current Sudeley Castle being mostly a 19^th century restoration. That said, the west wing of the castle does date largely from the 16^th century. The chapel contains the tomb of Katherine Parr and there is a stained glass window that features Jane Grey.

Sudeley Castle is open to visitors on a limited basis because it is still a family home. General admission is granted to the gardens, grounds and special exhibitions (housed in the west wing of the castle), but access to the castle apartments is only by conducted tour on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays.

The gardens are well worth seeing, especially as they have been designed to reflect past ages, including those of the Tudors. They include a knot garden, a herb garden and the formal Queens’ garden that is lined by yew hedges.

The Tower of London

This is where Jane’s life came to a premature end on the executioner’s block. She was beheaded on Tower Green, as had been two former wives of King Henry VIII, namely Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. Private executions out of the public gaze were granted to royal persons, whereas others took place on Tower Hill, outside the Tower walls.

On the day of her execution Jane watched her husband being led away and saw his headless corpse return on a cart shortly afterwards, before her turn came. She met her end with great courage, although she panicked for a moment when she was blindfolded and could not feel her way to the block.

Visitors can see the execution site and the chapel of St Peter ad Vincula where she was buried. However, Jane was housed during the weeks before her execution at the house of the head gaoler, so there is no cell or dungeon to visit that was once her prison.

The admission price to the Tower of London is not cheap, so visitors will want to get their money’s worth by seeing as much as possible of the various towers and buildings within the complex that constitute the site. Among the attractions are the Crown Jewels and many displays and exhibitions that tell the fascinating story of a fortress that has been standing for nearly a thousand years. Tours are led by yeoman warders who wear the same uniforms that would have been seen by Lady Jane Grey during her final days.

© John Welford